Part 1 - Define the problem 1 - Instruction, intructional systems and the systems approach Education and training: a question of goals Instruction: what this book is about Systems thinking Defining problems in systems terms Educationl technology An analysis of the growth and development of educational technology The systems approach Heuristics for instructional design Levels of instructional design 2 - Approaches to problems in education and training Macro and micro problems Some basic viewpoints on the aims and problems of education Industrial training Trend towards the systems view 3 - The how and why of performance objectives Aims and objectives in education and training Extending the statement of objectives: the test instrument Levels of objectives When and how to state precise objectives Selecting project objectives Checking objectives for compatibility Objections to objectives The systems approach is based on objectives Summary and preview 4 - The system in its environment The problem and its context Case studies in problem definition Part 2 - Analyse the problem 5 - From project objectives to instructional objectives The roads to instructional design Level 1 analysis Level 2 analysis Summary Approaches to the analysis of human performance problems The systems approach applied to performance problem analysis Analysis of performance problems Training (and other) needs analysis 7 - Techiniques and procedures for analysis at levels 1 and 2 8 - The analysis of the worth and practicality of a solution Introduction A schema of factors affecting the worth and practicality of a given solution Factors affecting the value of a solution Factors affecting the praticality of system development Factors affecting the practicality of system utilization Developing the shema Making the final decision Going ahead Part 3 - Macro-design 9 - Theories of learning and instruction The educational psychology battleground The behaviourist position as exemplified by skinner The neo-behaviorist viewpoint exemplified by R Ggne The cognitive/developmental viewpoint as exemplified by Piaget and Bruner The subject matter viewpoint as exemplified by Ausubel The cybernetic viewpoint as exemplified by Landa Comparisons between the theories The mastery learning model Cyclic learning models The cybernetics viewpoint - adaptive learning models Summary and Synthesis 10 - From intructional objectives to instructional decisions: analysis levels 3 and 4 Where are we going? Level 3 analysis The performance-type approach of mager and beach The CRAMP model The three models compared Level 4 analysis Similarities and differences between the models When to perform a deep analysis, and differences between the models When to perform a deep analysis 11 - Plugging the gaps in present approaches to instructional design Where we are going in this chapter The missing domain - social, interpersonal, interactive The affective domain - feelings or skills? The neglected domain - physical skills The cognitive domain - knowledge or skill? 12 - Analysis of knowledge and skills: a modified approach The knowledge schema The skills schema The skill cycle Analysis of some learning situations Conclusion 13 - The four levels of instructional design The four levels of analysis reviewed The four design levels Alternative 1; exit after level 1 analysis Alternative 2;Exit after level 2 analysis Alternative 3; exit after level 3 analysis Alternative 4: continue through to level 4 analysis Defining the terminology Designing the instructional process Overview of the design process 14 - The question of sequence Decisions at level 1 Decisions at level 2 15 - Strategies, plans and methods Level 1:overall instructional strategies Strategies for the teaching of knowledge Maching instructional strategy to skill category Level 2:developing a plan A directory of commonly used instructional methods 16 - Grouping Decisions at level 1:the data we have so far Group or individual learning? Grouping desisions for knowledge content Grouping decisions for the skills content Decisions at level 2: the group structure Commonly used group structures 17 - Media selection Introduction Media selection decisions at level1 Media selection decisions at level 2 18 - Control strategies The output measures Output controls The control system 19 - Evaluation The evaluation process Evaluation strategies Basic concepts in evaluation Decisions at level 2 Specific evaluation techniques 20 - Why projects fail Stages in implementing the plan Scale effect